Mitigation of alkali-silica reaction in concrete using readily-soluble chemical additives

ABSTRACT

A manufacturing method includes: (1) incorporating at least one soluble, calcium, magnesium, or other divalent cation-containing additive into a concrete mixture including aggregates prone to alkali-silica reaction; and (2) curing the concrete mixture to form a concrete product.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.62/545,306, filed Aug. 14, 2017, the contents of which are incorporatedherein by reference in their entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with Government support under DE-NE0008398,awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy, and 1253269, awarded by theNational Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in theinvention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This disclosure generally relates to mitigation of alkali-silicareaction in concrete.

BACKGROUND

Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is a deleterious chemical reaction that canproduce expansive stresses in concrete. The mechanism of ASR involvesthe reaction of certain types of aggregates including reactive forms ofsilica with alkaline pore solutions that result from cement hydration.In particular, silicon from reactive silica dissolves into an alkalinepore solution to form a gel that precipitates in spaces or cracks aroundreactive aggregate particles. When this gel is exposed to moisture, itexpands, creating stresses that can cause cracks in concrete. Thisexpansion and cracking reduces the service life of concrete structures.

One mitigation measure against ASR involves the use of non-reactiveaggregates. However, the availability of aggregates that are not proneto deleterious ASR is dwindling, involving transportation ofnon-reactive aggregates over long-distances. Other mitigation measuresare chemical methods of mitigation that rely on the use of supplementarycementitious materials, such as fly ash, or using lithium salts.However, the efficacy of these supplementary cementitious materials canbe highly variable, due to compositional variation and seasonal supplyof these materials, or can involve high cost in the case of lithiumsalts.

It is against this background that a need arose to develop theembodiments described herein.

SUMMARY

In some embodiments, a manufacturing method includes: (1) incorporatingat least one soluble calcium-containing additive into a concrete mixtureincluding aggregates prone to alkali-silica reaction (ASR); and (2)curing the concrete mixture to form a concrete product.

In additional embodiments, a manufacturing method includes: (1)incorporating at least one magnesium-containing additive, or otherdivalent cation-containing additive, into a concrete mixture includingaggregates prone to ASR; and (2) curing the concrete mixture to form aconcrete product.

In additional embodiments, a concrete product includes: (1) a binder;(2) aggregates dispersed within the binder; and (3) a calcium-containinginterfacial layer at least partially covering the aggregates.

In additional embodiments, a concrete product includes: (1) a binder;(2) aggregates dispersed within the binder; and (3) amagnesium-containing interfacial layer at least partially covering theaggregates.

Additional embodiments relate to a calcium-containing additive, amagnesium-containing additive, or other divalent cation-containingadditive for use in suppressing ASR in a concrete mixture includingASR-prone aggregates.

Additional embodiments relate to use of a calcium-containing additive, amagnesium-containing additive, or other divalent cation-containingadditive for suppressing ASR in a concrete mixture including ASR-proneaggregates.

Further embodiments relate to use of a calcium-containing additive, amagnesium-containing additive, or other divalent cation-containingadditive in the manufacture of a concrete product including ASR-proneaggregates.

Other aspects and embodiments of this disclosure are also contemplated.The foregoing summary and the following detailed description are notmeant to restrict this disclosure to any particular embodiment but aremerely meant to describe some embodiments of this disclosure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a better understanding of the nature and objects of some embodimentsof this disclosure, reference should be made to the following detaileddescription taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1. Reduction in expansion induced by alkali-silica reaction (ASR)as a function of calcium nitrate dosage (expressed as a percentage bymass of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) contained in a concrete mixture)in prismatic specimens of cementitious mortars. This data was acquiredfollowing a slight modification of the ASTM C441 procedure, utilizingcalcium nitrate rather than fly ash to mitigate expansion. The expansionreduction (R_(e)) was calculated as a difference between the averageincrease in length of reference prismatic mortar specimens (E_(r)), andthe average increase in length of prismatic mortar specimens dosed withcalcium nitrate (E_(CN)), namely, R_(e)=(E_(r)−E_(CN))×100%.

FIG. 2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showing surfaces ofaggregates covered by calcium-containing reaction products, with theamount of calcium-containing products and extent of surface coverageincreasing with increasing concentration of calcium nitrate.

FIG. 3. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTTR) resultsidentifying reaction products as a combination ofcalcium-silicate-hydrates (CSHs) and calcite. Results are shown foraggregates (borosilicate glass) immersed in a solution at a pH of about12 with increasing concentration of calcium nitrate, in comparison withdosing of aluminum, absence of dosing of any additive in the solution(reference), and pristine aggregate without immersion in the solution(pristine).

FIG. 4. Thermal analysis (TGA) results quantitatively confirming thepresence of calcite in reaction products. Results are shown foraggregates (borosilicate glass) immersed in a solution at a pH of about12 containing dissolved CO₂ with increasing concentration of calciumnitrate, in comparison with dosing of aluminum.

FIG. 5. Measurements of the concentrations of calcium ions in poresolutions of concrete mixtures, with varying calcium nitrate dosage(expressed as a percentage by mass of a cement contained in the concretemixtures) and as a function of time.

FIG. 6. Comparisons of expansion reductions in concrete mixtures withdosing of calcium nitrate (dosage expressed as a percentage by mass of acement contained in the concrete mixtures) and other mitigationmeasures, namely reducing content of aggregates (content expressed as avolume fraction of aggregates relative to a total volume of the concretemixtures) and reducing temperature.

FIG. 7. Measurements of aqueous dissolution rates of different types ofreactive aggregates immersed in a solution at a pH of about 12 withvarying dosing concentrations of calcium nitrate.

FIG. 8. Measurements of the concentrations of nitrate ions in poresolutions of concrete mixtures, with varying dosages of calcium nitrate(expressed as a percentage by mass of a cement contained in the concretemixtures) and as a function of time.

FIG. 9. Comparisons of expansion reductions in concrete mixtures withdosing of calcium nitrate and another soluble calcium-containing salt,namely calcium chloride. Dosages of the calcium-containing salts areexpressed as a percentage by mass of a cement contained in the concretemixtures.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of this disclosure are directed to inhibition ofalkali-silica reaction (ASR) through the use of abundant,readily-soluble cost-effective chemical additives. In some embodiments,concrete including ASR-prone aggregates can be formed to feature reducedexpansion, resulting from dosing of calcium-containing chemicaladditives (e.g., calcium-containing salts, such as calcium nitrate(Ca(NO₃)₂), calcium nitrite (Ca(NO₂)₂), or calcium chloride (CaCl₂),among others). In some embodiments, a calcium-containing chemicaladditive is dosed into a concrete mixture to provide a source of calciumin a mobilized or soluble form in a mixing water, which includes acombination of a cement, the mixing water, ASR-prone aggregates (coarse,fine, or both), and, optionally, a supplementary cementitious material.To mitigate expansion induced by ASR, dosages of a calcium-containingchemical additive ranging from about 0.1% to about 20% by mass of acement included in a concrete mixture can be used in some embodiments,depending on a cement composition and an amount or a reactivity ofaggregates used. In some embodiments, dosages may be calculated withreference to a mass of a cementitious binder, a mass of reactiveaggregates, a surface area of reactive aggregates, or othercharacteristic of a concrete formulation, as may be desirable dependingupon the specific application and service conditions. In place of, or incombination with, dosing of calcium-containing chemical additives,inhibition of ASR can be attained by dosing of magnesium-containingchemical additives (e.g., magnesium-containing salts) or other divalentcation-containing chemical additives.

In some embodiments, the mechanism of ASR inhibition is based on theformation of enveloping, stable calcium-containing reaction products atan interface between reactive aggregates and a cementitious poresolution within a concrete mixture. These calcium-containing productsserve as an interfacial barrier that form at the interface, by reducingthe reactive surface area of the aggregates mitigate against theirfurther dissolution, thereby reducing the tendency for the formation ofgels that can yield deleterious expansion.

In some embodiments, the mechanism of ASR inhibition is based on theformation of enveloping, stable magnesium-containing reaction products,or other divalent cation-containing reaction products, at an interfacebetween reactive aggregates and a cementitious pore solution within aconcrete mixture. These magnesium-containing products or other divalentcation-containing reaction products serve as an interfacial barrier thatform at the interface, by reducing the reactive surface area of theaggregates mitigate against their further dissolution, thereby reducingthe tendency for the formation of gels that can yield deleteriousexpansion.

The following are example embodiments of this disclosure.

In some embodiments, a manufacturing method of a concrete productincludes incorporating at least one soluble calcium-containing additive(or other additive) into a concrete mixture (or other cementitiouscomposition) including a cement, water, and aggregates.

In some embodiments, a calcium-containing additive is acalcium-containing salt. Examples of suitable calcium-containing saltsinclude calcium nitrate, calcium chloride, calcium nitrite, and mixturesor combinations of two or more of the foregoing. Suitable additives caninclude those that are readily water soluble and/or have a high watersolubility. In some embodiments, water solubility of acalcium-containing salt or other additive can be represented in terms ofan upper threshold amount of the salt that can dissolve in water to forma substantially homogenous solution, expressed in terms of grams of thesalt per 100 grams of water and measured at, for example, 20° C. and 1atmosphere or another set of reference conditions. Examples of suitableadditives include those having a water solubility, measured at 20° C.and 1 atmosphere, of at least about 0.5 g/(100 g of water), at leastabout 1 g/(100 g of water), at least about 5 g/(100 g of water), atleast about 8 g/(100 g of water), at least about 10 g/(100 g of water),at least about 15 g/(100 g of water), at least about 20 g/(100 g ofwater), at least about 30 g/(100 g of water), at least about 40 g/(100 gof water), or at least about 50 g/(100 g of water). Since calciumnitrate, calcium nitrite, calcium chloride, and their magnesium variantsare readily soluble in water, desired amounts of any one, or anycombination of, calcium nitrate, calcium nitrite, and calcium chloridecan be added in a solution form into a mixing water used to form aconcrete mixture. Alternatively, or in conjunction, any one, or anycombination of, calcium nitrate, calcium nitrite, and calcium chloridecan be added directly into a cement clinker or a cement powder byaddition or replacement as a powder. Other suitable additives listedabove also can be incorporated into a mixing water, a cement clinker orpowder, or both. In place of, or in combination with, acalcium-containing additive, a magnesium-containing additive, or otherdivalent cation-containing additive, can be incorporated into a concretemixture, and the foregoing discussion and the following discussion arealso applicable for such additive. Examples of suitablemagnesium-containing additives include magnesium-containing salts, suchas magnesium chloride.

Examples of cements include Portland cement, including ASTM C150compliant ordinary Portland cements (OPCs) such as Type I OPC, Type 1aOPC, Type II OPC, Type II(MH) OPC, Type IIa OPC, Type II(MH)a OPC, TypeIII OPC, Type IIIa OPC, Type IV OPC, and Type V OPC, as well as blendsor combinations of two or more of such OPCs, such as Type I/II OPC, TypeII/V OPC, and so forth. Other cements are encompassed by thisdisclosure, such as a calcium sulfoaluminate cement and a calciumaluminate cement. In some embodiments, aggregates include either, orboth, coarse aggregates and fine aggregates. In some embodiments, theaggregates include silica and are prone to deleterious ASR, such assilicate glass (e.g., borosilicate glass), quartz (e.g., strained ormicrocrystalline quartz), other silica-containing aggregates (e.g.,silica-containing minerals or other aggregates including at least about5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at leastabout 40%, or at least about 50% by mass of silica), and mixtures orcombinations of two or more of the foregoing. In some embodiments, theaggregates are included in an amount of at least about 1% by volume,relative to a total volume of a concrete mixture, such as at least about5% by volume, at least about 10% by volume, at least about 15% byvolume, or at least about 20% by volume, and up to about 25% by volume,or more. In some embodiments, a concrete mixture also optionallyincludes one or more supplementary cementitious materials, such as flyash, slag, metakaolin, and so forth.

In some embodiments, at least one calcium-containing additive (or otheradditive) is introduced into a concrete mixture in a non-zero amountcorresponding to at least about 0.1% by mass, relative to a mass of acement included in the concrete mixture, such as at least about 0.2% bymass, at least about 0.5% by mass, at least about 1% by mass, at leastabout 2% by mass, at least about 3% by mass, at least about 4% by mass,or at least about 5% by mass, and up to about 8% by mass, up to about10% by mass, up to about 15% by mass, up to about 20% by mass, or more.In some embodiments, two or more different calcium-containing additives(or other additives) are introduced into a concrete mixture in acombined amount corresponding to at least about 0.1% by mass, relativeto a total mass of the cement in the concrete mixture, such as at leastabout 0.2% by mass, at least about 0.5% by mass, at least about 1% bymass, at least about 2% by mass, at least about 3% by mass, at leastabout 4% by mass, or at least about 5% by mass, and up to about 8% bymass, up to about 10% by mass, or more. In some embodiments, at leastone calcium-containing additive (or other additive) is introduced into aconcrete mixture in an amount sufficient to attain an initialconcentration of calcium ions in a pore solution of the concrete mixtureof at least about 5 millimolar (mM), such as at least about 10 mM, as atleast about 20 mM, as at least about 30 mM, at least about 100 mM, atleast about 200 mM, at least about 300 mM, at least about 400 mM, or atleast about 500 mM, and up to about 800 mM, up to about 1000 mM, ormore.

In some embodiments, at least one calcium-containing additive (or otheradditive) is introduced into a concrete mixture in an amount that isadjusted or otherwise varied according to an amount of aggregates used,a reactivity of the aggregates used, or both. A reactivity of aggregatescan be assessed by, for example, assessing dissolution rate of siliconwhen the aggregates are immersed in an alkaline solution, assessing anextent of expansion when the aggregates are incorporated into a concretemixture in the absence of an additive to mitigate ASR, or assessing anamount of silica included in the aggregates. For example, an amount of acalcium-containing additive (or other additive) is increased ordecreased within the above-stated ranges according to a greater amountof aggregates used, a greater reactivity of the aggregates used, orboth. As another example, an amount of a calcium-containing additive (orother additive) is decreased or increased within the above-stated rangesaccording to a lesser amount of aggregates used, a lesser reactivity ofthe aggregates used, or both.

In some embodiments, identification is made that aggregates to beincluded in a concrete mixture are reactive aggregates prone to ASR,and, responsive to the identification, at least one calcium-containingadditive (or other additive) is introduced into the concrete mixture.

Once formed, a concrete mixture is cured (e.g., water-cured) to promotehydration reactions to form a resulting concrete product. In someembodiments, curing is performed at a temperature of about 20° C. orgreater, such as about 25° C. or greater, about 30° C. or greater, orabout 35° C. or greater, and up to about 45° C. or greater. In someembodiments, curing is performed at a temperature below about 20° C. Insome embodiments, the concrete product includes a cementitious binder(resulting from hydration reactions of a cement) and aggregatesdispersed within the binder, and, in the case of dosing of acalcium-containing additive, also includes a calcium-containinginterfacial barrier or layer at least partially coating, covering, orsurrounding the aggregates. In some embodiments, the calcium-containinginterfacial barrier includes calcium-silicate-hydrate (xCaO·SiO₂·yH₂O orCSH) and calcite (CaCO₃). In some embodiments, the calcium-containinginterfacial barrier is in the form of discrete calcium-containingprecipitates coating, covering, or surrounding the aggregates (see FIG.2). In the case of dosing of a magnesium-containing additive, theconcrete product includes a magnesium-containing interfacial barrier orlayer at least partially coating, covering, or surrounding theaggregates, and the magnesium-containing interfacial barrier can includemagnesium-silicate-hydrate (xMgO.SiO₂.yH₂O or MSH) and magnesite(MgCO₃).

In some embodiments, a manufacturing method of a concrete productincludes subjecting ASR-prone aggregates to pre-treatment to formpre-treated aggregates, and incorporating the pre-treated aggregatesinto a concrete mixture (or other cementitious composition) including acement, water, and the pre-treated aggregates. In some embodiments,subjecting the ASR-prone aggregates to pre-treatment includes exposingthe ASR-prone aggregates to a calcium-containing additive, amagnesium-containing additive, or other divalent cation-containingadditive, such as by immersion of the ASR-prone aggregates in, orotherwise exposing the ASR-prone aggregates to, an aqueous solution ofsuch additive. In some embodiments, subjecting the ASR-prone aggregatesto pre-treatment includes forming a calcium-containing interfacialbarrier, a magnesium-containing interfacial barrier, or other divalentcation-containing interfacial barrier at least partially coating,covering, or surrounding the aggregates. In some embodiments, the methodalso includes curing the concrete mixture to form a concrete product.

Other embodiments relate to a calcium-containing additive (or amagnesium-containing additive or other divalent cation-containingadditive) for use in suppressing ASR in a concrete mixture includingASR-prone aggregates. Additional embodiments relate to use of acalcium-containing additive (or a magnesium-containing additive or otherdivalent cation-containing additive) for suppressing ASR in a concretemixture including ASR-prone aggregates. Further embodiments relate touse of a calcium-containing additive (or a magnesium-containing additiveor other divalent cation-containing additive) in the manufacture of aconcrete product including ASR-prone aggregates for suppressing ASR.

EXAMPLE

The following example describes specific aspects of some embodiments ofthis disclosure to illustrate and provide a description for those ofordinary skill in the art. The example should not be construed aslimiting this disclosure, as the example merely provides specificmethodology useful in understanding and practicing some embodiments ofthis disclosure.

Calcium Nitrate Suppresses Alkali-Silica Reaction by Forming InterfacialBarriers on Reactive Silicates

As set forth in this example, the mechanism of alkali-silica reaction(ASR) inhibition is based on the formation of durable, stablecalcium-containing reaction products or precipitates at an interfacebetween reactive aggregates and a cementitious pore solution within aconcrete mixture. These calcium-containing products at the interfacemitigate against further dissolution of the aggregates by reducingreactive surface area, and reducing the formation of a gel that canyield deleterious expansion. Evaluations following a slight modificationof the procedure outlined in ASTM C441 indicate that ASR-inducedexpansion is fully mitigated at a dosage of about 4% of calcium nitrateby mass of a cement (see FIG. 1). Advantageously, calcium-containingsalts, such as calcium nitrate, are relatively inexpensive, and suchcalcium-containing salts can serve as a source of calcium in solutionform, providing controllable, reliable improvements. Significantly, thedosing of calcium-containing salts can also be used to increase theeffectiveness of calcium-containing coal fly ashes (e.g., Class C as perASTM C618) in mitigating expansion due to ASR.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images show surfaces of aggregatesbeing covered by calcium-containing reaction products, with the amountof calcium-containing products and extent of surface coverage increasingwith increasing concentration of calcium nitrate (see FIG. 2, withconcentration of calcium nitrate (CN) at 0 mM, about 1 mM, and about 100mM). Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) identified reactionproducts as a combination of calcium-silicate-hydrate (CSH) and calcite(see FIG. 3). Thermal analysis (TGA) quantitatively confirmed thepresence of calcite (see FIG. 4).

Measurements were made of the concentrations of calcium ions in poresolutions of cement mixtures, with varying initial (dosing)concentrations of calcium ions and as a function of time. As shown inFIG. 5, the concentrations of calcium ions in the pore solutions at day7 and beyond are reduced below levels in a reference cement mixturewithout any dosing. These results indicate that calcium is likely notpresent at sufficient levels to participate in altering precipitation ofgels, and is likely not present at sufficient levels to become part ofprecipitates of gels and alter their properties. Rather, the mechanismof ASR inhibition is based on the formation of interfacial barriers thatreduce reactive surface area. Calcium nitrate can have an additionaleffect of accelerating early cement hydration by attaining an earliersetting time; however, the strength developed at steady-state is notenhanced. Hence, expansion reduction from dosing of calcium nitratesderives from reduced aggregate dissolution, rather than a greaterstrength or a greater stress-resistance.

Comparisons were made of expansion reductions in concrete mixtures withdosing of calcium nitrate and other mitigation measures, namely reducingcontent of aggregates (reducing reactive surface area) and reducingtemperature (reducing reaction rate). As shown in FIG. 6, a dosage ofabout 2% of calcium nitrate attains a comparable reduction as about 10%reduction in reactive aggregate volume, or an about 10° C. drop intemperature, and a dosage of about 4% of calcium nitrate exceedsexpansion reduction achieved by an about 20° C. drop in temperature.

Measurements were made of dissolution rates of different types ofreactive aggregates immersed in a solution at a pH of about 12 withvarying dosing concentrations of calcium nitrate. As shown in FIG. 7, inaddition to reductions in dissolution rates for borosilicate glass,reductions in dissolution rates are observed for other types of reactiveaggregates, including strained quartz and microcrystalline quartz,indicating wide-ranging applicability of calcium-nitrate, and the statedsoluble divalent cation salt approach, for ASR inhibition.

Measurements were made of the concentrations of nitrate ions in poresolutions of concrete mixtures, with varying dosages of calcium nitrateand as a function of time. As shown in FIG. 8, the concentrations ofnitrate ions in the pore solutions with addition of calcium nitrate areroughly similar. These results indicate that ASR inhibition is likelynot derived from nitrate, but rather derives from calcium. Comparisonswere made of expansion reductions in concrete mixtures with dosing ofcalcium nitrate and another calcium-containing salt, namely calciumchloride, along with a reference concrete mixture in the absence of anydosing (see FIG. 9). Like calcium nitrate, calcium chloride suppressesexpansion based on the mechanism of formation of calcium-containinginterfacial barriers to slow aggregate dissolution.

As used herein, the singular terms “a,” “an,” and “the” may includeplural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus,for example, reference to an object may include multiple objects unlessthe context clearly dictates otherwise.

As used herein, the term “set” refers to a collection of one or moreobjects. Thus, for example, a set of objects can include a single objector multiple objects.

As used herein, the terms “substantially” and “about” are used todescribe and account for small variations. When used in conjunction withan event or circumstance, the terms can refer to instances in which theevent or circumstance occurs precisely as well as instances in which theevent or circumstance occurs to a close approximation. For example, whenused in conjunction with a numerical value, the terms can refer to arange of variation of less than or equal to ±10% of that numericalvalue, such as less than or equal to ±5%, less than or equal to ±4%,less than or equal to ±3%, less than or equal to ±2%, less than or equalto ±1%, less than or equal to ±0.5%, less than or equal to ±0.1%, orless than or equal to ±0.05%.

Additionally, concentrations, amounts, ratios, and other numericalvalues are sometimes presented herein in a range format. It is to beunderstood that such range format is used for convenience and brevityand should be understood flexibly to include numerical values explicitlyspecified as limits of a range, but also to include all individualnumerical values or sub-ranges encompassed within that range as if eachnumerical value and sub-range is explicitly specified. For example, arange of about 1 to about 200 should be understood to include theexplicitly recited limits of about 1 and about 200, but also to includeindividual values such as about 2, about 3, and about 4, and sub-rangessuch as about 10 to about 50, about 20 to about 100, and so forth.

While the disclosure has been described with reference to the specificembodiments thereof, it should be understood by those skilled in the artthat various changes may be made and equivalents may be substitutedwithout departing from the true spirit and scope of the disclosure asdefined by the appended claims. In addition, many modifications may bemade to adapt a particular situation, material, composition of matter,method, operation or operations, to the objective, spirit and scope ofthe disclosure. All such modifications are intended to be within thescope of the claims appended hereto. In particular, while certainmethods may have been described with reference to particular operationsperformed in a particular order, it will be understood that theseoperations may be combined, sub-divided, or re-ordered to form anequivalent method without departing from the teachings of thedisclosure. Accordingly, unless specifically indicated herein, the orderand grouping of the operations are not a limitation of the disclosure.

1-24. (canceled)
 25. A method of manufacture, the method comprising:incorporating at least one divalent cation-containing additive into aconcrete mixture including aggregates prone to alkali-silica reaction,wherein the divalent cation-containing additive suppresses alkali-silicareaction of the aggregates; and curing the concrete mixture to form aconcrete product, including formation of divalent cation-containingreaction products, at an interface between reactive aggregates and acementitious pore solution within the concrete mixture.
 26. The methodof claim 25, wherein the aggregates comprise silica.
 27. The method ofclaim 25, wherein the aggregates comprise at least one of silicateglass, strained quartz, or microcrystalline quartz.
 28. The method ofclaim 25 further comprising identifying the aggregates as prone to aalkali-silica reaction, and wherein incorporating the divalentcation-containing additive is responsive to identifying the aggregatesprone to the alkali-silica reaction.
 29. The method of claim 25, whereinincorporating the divalent cation containing additive includes adjustingan amount of the divalent cation-containing additive according to atleast one of an amount of the aggregates or reactivity of theaggregates.
 30. The method of claim 25 further comprising: subjectingaggregates to pre-treatment to form pre-treated aggregates;incorporating the pre-treated aggregates into a concrete mixture; andcuring the concrete mixture to form a concrete product, whereinsubjecting the aggregates to pre-treatment includes exposing theaggregates to a solution including a divalent cation-containingadditive, forming a divalent cation-containing interfacial barrier atleast partially covering the aggregates.
 31. The method of claim 25further comprising: incorporating at least one calcium-containingadditive into a concrete mixture including aggregates prone to aalkali-silica reaction, wherein the calcium-containing additivesuppresses the alkali-silica-reaction of the aggregates, and curing theconcrete mixture to form a concrete product, including forming acalcium-containing interfacial layer at least partially covering theaggregates.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the calcium-containinginterfacial layer comprises calcium-silicate-hydrate and calcite. 33.The method of claim 31, wherein the aggregates include silica.
 34. Themethod of claim 31, wherein the aggregates comprise at least one ofsilicate glass, strained quartz, or microcrystalline quartz.
 35. Themethod of claim 31 further comprising identifying the aggregates asprone to a alkali-silica reaction, and wherein incorporating thedivalent cation-containing additive is responsive to identifying theaggregates prone to the alkali-silica reaction.
 36. The method of claim31, wherein incorporating the divalent cation containing additiveincludes adjusting an amount of the divalent cation-containing additiveaccording to at least one of an amount of the aggregates or reactivityof the aggregates.
 37. The method of claim 31, wherein thecalcium-containing additive comprises a calcium-containing salt
 38. Themethod of claim 31, wherein the calcium-containing salt comprisescalcium nitrate, calcium chloride, or calcium nitrite.
 39. The method ofclaim 31, wherein the concrete mixture includes a cement, and thecalcium-containing additive is incorporated into the concrete mixture inan amount of at least 1% by mass, relative to a mass of the cementincluded in the concrete mixture.
 40. The method of claim 39, whereinthe calcium-containing additive is incorporated into the concretemixture in an amount sufficient to attain an initial concentration ofcalcium ions in a pore solution of the concrete mixture of at least 30mM.
 41. The method of claim 25 further comprising: incorporating atleast one magnesium-containing additive into a concrete mixtureincluding aggregates prone to a alkali-silica reaction, wherein themagnesium-containing additive suppresses the alkali-silica-reaction ofthe aggregates, and curing the concrete mixture to form a concreteproduct.
 42. The method of claim 41, wherein the curing the concretecomprises forming a magnesium-containing interfacial layer at leastpartially covering the aggregates.
 43. The method of claim 41, whereinthe magnesium-containing additive is a magnesium-containing salt.
 44. Aconcrete product, comprising: a binder; aggregates dispersed within thebinder; and a calcium-containing interfacial layer at least partiallycovering the aggregates.
 45. The concrete product of claim 44, whereinthe calcium-containing interfacial layer comprisescalcium-silicate-hydrate and calcite.
 46. A concrete product,comprising: a binder; aggregates dispersed within the binder; and amagnesium-containing interfacial layer at least partially covering theaggregates.